Saljo, R. (in press) Human growth and the complex society: notes on the mono-cultural bias of theories of learning. Cultural Dynamics.

The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the analysis of the conceptions of learning (and cognition) that dominate research in several disciplines. Does not focus on the work of Marton and other phenomenographers .Argues that conceptions of learning, knowledge and human growth are fundamentally cultural in nature, but the dominant rendering of these phenomena in scientific discourse serves to hide such differences . Represents part of Saljo s present interest in a socio-cultural approach to learning.

Saljo, R. (1994) Minding action-conceiving of the world versus participating in cultural practices. Nordisk Peadagogik, 14(4): 71-80.

This article discusses some features of phenomenography. It is argued that the mode in which conceptions of the world are studied needs to be further clarified. Saljo critiques a range of aspects of the phenomenographic approach.

Saljo, R. (1991a) Introduction: culture and learning. Learning and Instruction 1: 179-185.

This paper summarises a series of articles appearing in an early volume of Learning and Instruction, a journal established under the auspices of the European Association of Research into Learning and Instruction. Saljo s comments point out the direction being taken by contributors to this volume: My reading of the articles reductionist nature of cognitivism and discuss issues of human change and learning against a background that I understand as having to do with culture and ways of world making .... rooted in a recognition of the significance of culturally mediated ways of understanding and explaining the world . (Reflects the sociocultural approach).

Saljo, R. (1991b) Learning and mediation: fitting reality into a table, Learning and Instruction 1: 261-272.

The background of this article is an interest in a sociocultural perspective on cognition, in particular problems that concern the appropriation and use of cultural tools (in a Vygotskyan sense). Drawing from the data of an extensive study of the use and understanding of a particular type of tool, a postage table, it is argued that the difficulties of coordinating the table with an outside reality that people have, cannot be understood in terms of failures to correctly apply particular forms of reasoning.... Rather, the use of a tool presupposes sensitivity to contextual considerations applicable for specific situations or domains. (Author s abstract).

Saljo, R. (1991c) Piagetian controversies, cognitive competence, and assumptions about human communication, Educational Psychology Review 3(2): 117-126.

This article is a comment on Ed Elbers analysis of the debate between R. Gelman and R. Siegler on the development of fundamental counting competencies. An attempt is made to characterise some of the theoretical positions of Gelman and Siegler. It is argued that the tendency to reduce human cognitive performance to an issue of either the application of performed competencies of various kinds, or, alternatively, of the use of domain specific knowledge, hampers our understanding of cognitive growth and the mastery of intellectual tools. The alternative offered is that all human activity - including what takes place in the experiment - should be seen as socially and culturally situated, and that our focus should be on understanding the resources - mental as well as practical - that people draw on when solving problems. (Author s abstract).

Saljo, R. (1988) Learning in educational settings: methods of enquiry. In Paul Ramsden (ed.) Improving Learning: new perspectives. London: Kogan Page.

This is one of the few papers that deals entirely with phenomenographic method in all its stages. Headings include: What comes first - theory or method, qualitative and quantitative methods, studying the world as perceived, the phenomenographic approach, generating and analysing data, the status of conceptions and the use of research, the research process and the reliability of findings. A useful starting point in coming to grips with the method. See also Marton s papers in Instructional Science and the Journal of Thought.

Saljo, R. (1979) Learning about learning. Higher Education, 8: 443-451.

Early writing on conceptions of learning. 90 people of varying ages were interviewed. Reports the famous question What do you mean by learning?

Saljo, R. & Cedersund, E. (1988) The retention of news: on empirical results and implicit assumptions of human communication. In M.M. Gruneberg, P.E. Morris & R.N. Sykes (eds.) Practical Aspects of Memory: current research and issues, Vol. 1. Brisbane: John Wiley and Sons, Brisbane.

Although still retaining an interest in phenomenography, Roger Saljo primary interests are in the area of communication. In this paper he argues that when studying retention in everyday life in a world characterised by information overflow, it is essential to uphold a clear distinction between problems of retention and comprehension that arise when there is a genuine commitment on the part of the individual to making sense of what is said and the problems that arise in situations where there is no such commitment...

Saljo, R. & Wyndhamn, J. (1987) The formal setting as context for cognitive activities. An empirical study of arithmetic operations under conflicting premisses for communication. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 2(3): 233-245.

A crucial aspect of what are conventionally conceived as differences in mathematical ability seems, judging from the present results, to have more to do with the capacity to decipher ambiguous communicative situations than with the mastery of a mathematical algorithm per se.

Salner, M. (1989) Validity in human science research. In S. Kvale (ed.) Issues of Validity in Qualitative Research. Studentlitteratur, Lund.

Salner describes the domain of human science as a matrix of inter-subjective meanings (p49) within which the human science researcher operates. She continues to focus on the kinds of epistemological and methodological assumptions appropriate to inquiry into this domain (p49). Salnera argues that discussion of the validity of human science research must proceed from within the epistemological assumptions that human science researchers make about their domain and inquiry into it (p49). The status of phenomenography as a Human Science research approach has been subject to considerable debate.

Samuelowicz, K. & Bain, J.D. (1992) Conceptions of teaching held by academic teachers. Higher Education, 24(1): 93-112.

"This study examines conceptions of teaching held by academic teachers in the fields of science and social science, in two universities: a distance university in the UK and a traditional one in Australia. A five level classification of conceptions of teaching is proposed. A process of arriving at this scheme is discussed and a formalised coding system is presented which helps to delimit, with greater confidence, the boundaries of each conception, and helps to order conceptions, to compare conceptions proposed by other researchers, and to place individuals within conceptions. The same coding system is then used to define the concepts of student-centred and teacher-centred approaches to teaching. There is a strong suggestion that teaching conceptions are context dependant". (Author abstract).

Sandberg, J. (1995) Are phenomenographic results reliable? Nordisk Pedagogik, no 3.

This article takes up the issue of the extent to which phenomenographic results are reliable. It is argued that interjudge reliability, traditionally used within phenomenography, is an unreliable way of establishing reliability of the results produced. First, interjudge reliability does not take into account the researcher s procedures for achieving fidelity to the individuals conceptions investigated. Second, and most fundamental, the use of interjudge reliability based on an objectivistic epistemology gives rise to methodological and theoretical inconsistency within phenomenography. Reliability as interpretative awareness, maintained through the phenemenological reduction, is suggested as one way of overcoming the problem of establishing reliability of phenomenographic results.

Sandberg, J. (1994a) Human Competence at Work, PhD thesis, University of Gothenburg, Sweden.

Sandberg, J. (1994b) Human Competence at Work: an Interpretative Approach. Sweden.

The central research question explored in this study is how human competence at work can be made apprehensible for managers as a starting point for training and development in the primary aim of the study is to overcome the limitations identified within the rationalistic approaches by elaborating an alternative approach to competence which is not based on a dualist ontology and objectivistic epistemology. An interpretative approach, phenomenography, is put forward as an alternative to the rationalistic approaches. (Extract from authors abstract).

Sandberg, J. (1991a) Competence as intentional achievement: a phenomenographic study. Occasional Paper 91.4, ERADU, RMIT.

"In this study I explored the competence of engine optimisers within the Volvo Car Company. In this process I have tried to understand the individual s conception of their work, that is, how the work appeared to them, the optimisers, in the accomplishment of their task.." Investigating the individual s conception of his or her work is used as an avenue for uncovering the intentional dimension of human competence . This report also describes the research outcomes and implications for a new approach to understanding competence.

Sandberg, J. (1991b) Competence as intentionality: a phenomenographic approach. Paper presented at the tenth conference of the International Human Science Research Association, University of Goteborg, Sweden.

One of a series of papers reporting Sandberg s research into the competence of engine optimisers.

Simons, S. (1982) Conversation piece: the practice of interviewing in case study research. In L. Bartlett, S. Kemmis & G Gillard (eds.) Case Study Methods - the Conduct of Fieldwork, vol 6, Readings 34-44. Deakin Uni Press: Deakin.

An excellent introduction to the hows and what to do s and what not to do s for the beginning interviewer. Of particular interest to those interviewing in schools but has an appeal to a wider audience.

Spinelli, E. (1989) The Interpreted World: an Introduction to Phenomenological Psychology. London: Sage.

Spinelli s is a very accessible introduction to the history and nature of phenomenology. He explores the origins of phenomenology, transcendental and existential phenomenology, the nature of reality and a number of phenomenology s fundamental issues. Highly recommended.

Svensson, L. (1994) Theoretical foundations of Phenomenography. In R. Ballantyne & C. Bruce (eds.) Phenomenography: Philosophy and Practice. Proceedings. QUT, Brisbane, Australia, pp. 9-20.

In this paper the foundation of phenomenography is discussed. The author provides an interpretation of the historical development of phenomenography as well as arguments about its theoretical foundations. What is emphasised is an understanding of the historical roots and the scientific context of phenomenography as a developing new tradition of research. The idea is to give a description of the historical roots and at the same time, point out the theoretical foundation most in line with the origin of the tradition. (Adapted from author s introduction).

Svensson, L. (1991) Development of knowledge about knowledge development. Paper presented at the 10th conference of the international Human Science Research Association Gothenburg, Sweden.

This paper consists of an extended analysis of the nature of conception and approach as they relate to phenomenography and the study of student learning.

Svensson, L. (1989a) The conceptualization of cases of physical motion. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 4(4): 529-545.

Reports Svensson s investigations into conceptions of mechanics concepts. Includes a useful section differentiating between the notions of concept, conception and conceptualisation.

Svensson, L. (1989b) Autodidactics. Paper Presented at the Third European Conference for Research on Learning and Instruction, Madrid, Spain, September 4-7, 1989.

In an ongoing project at the University of Lund, Sweden, adults are being interviewed about their studies outside organised education. The project is concerned with the autodidactics of these studies, ie. with what is studied, how the studies are carried out and what the basis is for determination of the what and how of the studies. Data collection has not been finished and no thorough analysis has been made of any part of the data. In the following, the field of research, the research problem and some general characteristics of the investigation will be discussed. (p1).

Svensson, L. (1985a) Contextual analysis- the development of a research approach. Paper presented to the 2nd Conference on Qualitative Research in Psychology. Leusden, The Netherlands.

In moving towards a methodological description of the Gothenburg based research which has come to be known as phenomenographic in approach, Svensson addresses some of the tensions arising from not having a clear methodological position. It seems quite clear that our approach is placed between two main groupings of research and we have been asked for clarification and attacked from both sides . He goes on to argue the analytic rigour of contextual analysis is the methodology of our work. What will be suggested here is that contextual analysis is an alternative to traditional and dominating methodologies and a synthesis of some important characteristics of these methodologies (p2).

Svensson, L. (1985b) The role of experience in adult thinking about evidence for causal interpretations. Human Learning, 4: 187-201.

A group of nurses and a group of technicians reasoned about evidence for the existence of a causal relation in a medical and a technical case. A statement about the existence of the relation was presented and the subjects were asked what evidence might and should be behind such a statement. In an unstructured in-depth interview, they outlined their conceptions of the problem of evidence in each example by suggesting the kinds of investigations that would be relevant. The nurses and the technicians relied on different knowledge of the specific subject matter and they placed the evidence problem in different contexts giving different meanings to the problem. (Author s abstract). This paper is representative of Svensson s interest in situated reasoning, and appears to be linked to Saljo s recent research into remembering .

Svensson, L. (1984a) Skill in learning. In F. Marton, D. Hounsell and N. Entwistle (eds.) The Experience of learning. Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press.

It is the aim of the present chapter to pursue further the question of organisation in learning and to specify in greater detail the nature of the relation between the activity of the learner and the outcome of learning. ...the term skill will be used to refer to the nature or the quality of the interaction. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the most important general characteristics of skill in learning .

Svensson, L. (1984b) Three Approaches to Descriptive Research. Paper presented at the Symposium on Qualitative Research in Psychology, Perugia, Italy, August 8-12, 1983. Report No. 1984:01, Dept of Education: University of Goteborg.

A useful paper exploring the similarities and differences between three research approaches, described as emphasising different aspects or having different turns . These emanate from:
University of Goteborg (the scientific turn)
Duquesne University (the philosophical turn)
University of London (the linguistic turn)
Aspects explored include the commitment of the turns, the fields of research with which they are concerned, the design and collection of data, and the kinds of descriptions developed as outcomes.

This paper presents an early representation of what has become known as a relational view of learning . What is suggested here is that learning is basically a change in the relation between individual and situation... (p12).This view of learning is taken up by Marton and other educational researchers such as Bowden and Ramsden.

Svensson, L. & Gerrevall, P. (1991) Expressions of understanding and forms of examination. Paper presented at the Fourth European Conference for Research on Learning and Instruction, Turku, Finland, August 24-28, 1991.

...a small exploratory study was made concerning expressions of understanding and forms of examination in a university course in automatic control for first year university engineering students. The aim was to study some different variations in the content and form of the questions in an ordinary examination situation and to analyse what these variations might mean to the demands and possibilities of expressing understanding. (p2).

Svensson, L. & Hogfors, C. (1988) Conceptions as the content of teaching: improving education in mechanics. In P. Ramsden (ed.) Improving Learning: New Perspectives. London: Kogan Page.

A discussion of Svensson s work into conceptions of phenomena in a mechanics course with particular reference to how teachers can be encouraged to make conceptions part of the content of teaching. Discusses teacher presentation of alternative conceptions, diagnoses of students conceptions used as content in teaching, confrontations between students and teacher discussions of course goals (p166).

Svensson, L. & Theman, J. (1983) The relation between categories of description and an interview protocol in a case of phenomenographic research. Paper presented at the Second Annual Human Science Research Conference, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, P.A.

An important paper discussing the validity of categories of description in relation to the interview protocol. The authors explore the nature of conceptions and categories of description in detail, then use a case study to describe how the arising categories can be validated. A conception is described as representing a relation between an individual and a part of the world (p8).

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